By: Mirza Adrian N.P
The dynamic between internal and external issues created circumstances where Black African Nationalism could succeed. Internally, Black Africans had created a volatile condition that could only be solved through decolonization and majority rule. This rebellion attracted the attention of the world who, by 1945, had agreed that freedom and democracy had to be established to keep the peace of the world. Externally, the global economy along with the ongoing Cold War made the success of Black African Nationalism possible. These in turn pressurised the White Settlers to give Black Africans majority rule. However, in some cases neo-colonialism and Cold War sectarianism hindered the development of Black Nationalism. The complexity of interaction between internal and external forces shaped Black Nationalism and dictated its successes or failures.
Ideological Changes
The successes of Black African nationalism were started by the underlying changes in the ideology of both White Europeans and Black Africans. By the end of WWII white Europeans, especially Britain, had realised that African independence was imminent. They had changed their attitude from Imperialist colonialism to Partnership. Their colonial problem now was not how to prolong colonialism, but how to make the best use of what time was left. They had to prepare the people for independence and to solve any problem that might undermine the new sovereign states. In Ghana, Britain supported the development of Black Nationalism. Britain created the constitution and accommodated with Black Africans’ terms of independence. Britain’s willingness to decolonise Africa was shown by the willingness of Sir Arden-Clarke to release Nkrumah in 1951 even though they knew that Nkrumah would push for independence.
Britain, however, was not consistent in their support for Black Nationalism. Pressure from White settlers made Britain went against Black Nationalism. The government was careful not to alienate the settlers. In Kenya Britain did the opposite of their action in Ghana; Black leaders were detained and the country was put under the state of emergency. Britain also divided Kenya into two sides: the Kikuyus and the non-Kikuyus. Blacks were denied of their leadership and unity. This obstructed Black Nationalism because it prevented Black Africans to develop a united nation.
Black Africans changed their ideology from Gradualism to a more radical position. This was mainly due to the shift of leadership. New leaders emerged after WWII; their experience during the war shaped their beliefs and made them more radical. In Ghana, the shift from the UGCC to Nkrumah’s CPP increased the pace of change. The UGCC also wanted independence but they had a more gradualist approach. Congo also benefited from the emergence of Patrice Lumumba; unlike his rivals who were tribally based, Lumumba’s support did not come from an exclusive tribe. This was a better nationalism because it united Congo and created a united sense of identity. Lumumba also fought for the people not the elites, and unlike his rivals, he realised the threat neo-colonialism posed to the Congolese independence.
Some movements became a violent revolution; their transformation to militancy was mainly caused by the Colonial power rejection of Black political fronts. Without a valid political front, Blacks’ dissension and frustration could only be relieved violently. In Kenya, the majority of Black Africans had no political education; they wanted changes but had no outlets to achieve this change. The Mau-Mau rebellion in 1952, although defeated, was a success for Black Africans. Mau-Mau pressurised Britain to introduce reforms and changes that ultimately led to independence, it also encourage white emigration. Mau-Mau leadership was unorthodox; leadership was spread without principal leader. This showed that non-intellectual elites could organise a successful rebellion. The rebellion gained little support from White Europeans; they see this as an aimless terrorist organisation whose main aim was to spread terror indiscriminately.
Militancy was an important stage in Black African Nationalism. During the militant period, tribal dissensions tend to disappear because they endanger the revolution and Black Africans knew that it divert violence against false foes. In Rhodesia, this was visible. The union between ZANLA and ZIPRA to form the Patriot Front in 1980 was proved more effective in pressurising the minority regime. The dissension between the Ndebele and Shona people was diminished among the guerrilla fighters but still apparent on their politicians.
Ideological changes were an important factor in the shaping of Black African Nationalism. The Europeans readiness to decolonise Africa along with Black Africans adamant to be united with distinct identity made the success of Black Nationalism possible. The shift to militancy was vital; militancy created unity between Black Africans, pressurised illegal regimes and attract the attention of the world. The failure of militancy was that after independent was reached, tribalism remained. In addition with the existing army, power struggle between politicians was turned into a civil war. This divided Black Africans and created a failed Nationalist movement.
Political Issues
The formation of Black political parties developed Black Nationalism further. Early political parties, pre-1945, were usually elitist, they only had intellectual elites as members. As Black Nationalism developed, new parties tried to involve as many people as possible. This was a success for Black Nationalism because it united everyone rather than just the elites. The formation of political parties was vital for Black Nationalism. Political parties enable Black Africans to congregate and provided leaders that could negotiate with the White Establishment. In Ghana, the shift from UGCC to CPP made independent achieved faster. In South Africa, the development of ANC, from its predecessor SANNC, did not receive the same treatment; they were ignored and repressed, this made them resolve to violent.
New leaders started to emerge and their demands became more radical. Rather than concessions, they now demanded for immediate full independent. New leaders were influenced by Indian Nationalism, their action of civil disobedience and formation of National Congresses resembled Gandhianist movement. They had political consciousness, unlike their predecessor they wanted to create a new African system rather than using the existing colonial system. The emergence of Lumumba in Congo and Nkrumah in Ghana illustrate this clearly. In Congo, Lumumba understood the social realm of his rebellion. He, as an individual, was radicalised by the masses and he wanted to create a system that benefit the people rather than the elites. Nkrumah also broke away from the old elites and organised a mass defiant to undermine the colonial establishment. The unification of the mass by the new leader was a success for Black Nationalism because it created unity and a unified struggle against colonial rule. It also showed that ordinary Africans had developed political consciousness.
These new leaders had been exposed to Marxism; this made them able to create a new political guideline. African Socialism was popular among the new leader because it was a symbolical break from Western Capitalists values. The repercussion of this was the lost of support from the west because of Cold War sectarianism, some private business even funded a rebellion against a regime that was seen to be socialistic. In Congo, the secession of the Katanga province was funded by the mining companies this prevented Black Africans to be united according to their nationalism. The assassination of Lumumba in 1961, backed by the CIA, denied Congo of their democratic leader and installed Kasavubu, a tribal based leader, as the head of government in 1960. External premature intervention of the development of Black Nationalism caused its failure; the US and its cronies only acted for their own interest, this undermined the development of Black Nationalism.
The shift in Global politics affected the development of Black Nationalism. After WWII, The influence of the old European powers had diminished while the new Superpowers had increased. The superpowers fought for freedom and democracy, this pressurise the European power to decolonise their empire. The US growing interest in Africa enabled some countries to gain independence while some other countries had their sovereignty undermined through neo-colonialism. In Zimbabwe, the US was responsible for the stabilisation of the country. The US supported Black Africans’ cause and was against the White settlers. This ensured victory to Black Africans in the negotiation table. In spite of this, the US growing interest also brought neo-colonialism that acted conversely to Black Nationalism. In Ghana, the development of the country was halted because of Nkrumah’s socialism, the IMF and World Bank refused to support Nkrumah’s plan to industrialise the country thus restrain Ghana from economic development it desperately needed.
Political Issues was very important in the development of Black Nationalism. Political issues drove other issues and initiate Black Independent. The establishment of Black political movement was vital to the success of Black Nationalism. Without a solid political front Blacks would not achieve independent. It could be argued that Political revival in Africa was an external dependent development; Black leaders were educated in Europe and had European principles. Nonetheless, the development of this principles happened in Africa and the finished product was heavily imbued with African values, it was therefore an internal phenomenon.
Economic Issues
The economic condition of the Globe and Europe pushed for the decolonisation of Africa. After WWII, Europe treasuries were limited. The continuation of colonialism became too expensive especially if the colony was rebellious. In Congo, the Belgian government did not want to risk a prolonged conflict in other part of Africa. After the Leopoldville riot in 1959, the Belgians started to push for independence. The swiftness of independence in Congo in 1960 was mainly caused by domestic economic reasons in Europe. This, however, created problem since Congo had little intellectual elites and tribal dissension was rife. The country broke into civil war and Black Nationalism had failed. In Kenya, the British took five years and 50,000 troops to suppress the Mau-Mau, the British population did not support this costly act, this meant that the government had to resort to negotiation; this eventually led to Black independence.
After independence, European companies still tried to maintain their influence through their properties; Nkrumah called this neo-colonialism. This was dangerous for Black Nationalism because it denied newly independent countries from self-determination. Newly independent countries were, unfortunately, dependent both economically and politically with the European companies. Because they did not have enough skilled technicians to run some companies they relied on White technicians or otherwise resources would go untapped. Private companies only acted on their own interest and could provoke the US intervention in Africa. The Katanga secession in 1960 in Congo was an example to this.
Global community could also impose trade sanctions to illegal minority regimes as a show of support to Black Africans. Sanctions was used to force White nationalists to negotiate with Black Africans and give them some concessions, or would cause disintegration within the regime and give rise to Black Africans regime. Sanctions made the white Africans feel alienated from the world, this doubt whether they could maintain white supremacy with the world against them made them submit to majority rule. In South Africa sanctions did not do much, S.A had become more self-reliant, they could produce their own oil and steel. In Rhodesia, sanctions were more effective, it almost disintegrate the regime until S.A regime came to help.
Volatile conditions caused by Black militancy created unsupportive economic atmosphere, this made many foreign investors disinvest their investments in Africa. The result of disinvestments was abysmal for the economy of illegal regimes. In S.A, whose economy was dependent with foreign investors, disinvestments of foreign businesses created inflation. Economy ceased to generate profits and reserves started to run out. All these made the regime decrease its repressive policy, and reform could begin.
Economic issues were also vital to the decolonisation of Africa. Europe weak economy after WWII meant that they could not maintain their colonies. This was reciprocated by Black rebellions, without enough money to support the army to repress the rebellion the Europeans only option was to decolonise their empire. Trade sanctions in Southern Africa destabilise illegal regimes this gave opportunities for Black Africans to stage a rebellion that would be the coup de grace for illegal regimes. Nevertheless, economic issue also posed a threat to Black Nationalism. The rigidness of private companies to maintain their properties meant that Black Africans had to depend on these companies for economic development. Their economic systems were also dictated by these companies. The idea of self-determination had not been reached.
White Settlers Issues
White settlers were a major driving force in the development of Black Nationalism. In area where white settlers existed Black Nationalism developed differently, they became more militant and radical because their political front was undermined. The hatred toward white settlers also drove for militancy. White settlers had developed their Nationalism before Black Africans. This allowed them to monopolise political power. The White nationalism goal was minority rule. The Europeans supported this because they see that Whites were more able to govern than Blacks were. The settlers both hindered and promoted Black Nationalism; their goal of minority rule was the opposite of Black Africans, their adamant to maintain white supremacy suppressed Black Nationalism. Nevertheless, they had a unifying effect on Black Africans; the settlers divert their attention from tribal quarrel.
The strongest White settler’s community was in the southern of Africa who had been there since the early 19th century. The minority were strong and rich and they were there not as administrator but as residents of their own country. In S.A, the settlers had fought for their independence and had a strong sense of nationalism, this include white supremacy and racism. In Rhodesia, the settlers had announced their independence with the Unilateral Declaration of Independence. This made it harder for Black Africans to achieve majority rule because rebellion against an established administration made their movement illegal. The established governments also had Armies; they use the Army to repress Black Movement. The illegality of the movement caused them to lose some support from the Global community. This also meant that Black political parties were illegal, Black could not create a political front, and they resort to violence. The formation of ZANLA and ZIPRA in Rhodesia and MK in S.A illustrate this.
The existent of white settlers also had positive impacts on Black Nationalism. The settlers adamant to create minority rule made Black Africans more resolute in achieving majority rule. The actions of the settlers could also rejuvenate the movement. The repression of Black movement in Sharpeville in 1960 and Soweto in 1976 created the Black Consciousness movement and radicalised the ANC to use violent. Their actions also pull the attention of the world and quicken their own demise. The crisis in Rhodesia attracted the US intervention, the US felt that they had to stabilise the area so that it would not fall to the USSR expansion. The US support for Black Africans enabled them to gain majority rule.
The existence of White Settlers created a complexity within the struggle. The idea of compromise in the negotiation table was that it would benefit both settlers and natives. However, because their goal was the exact opposite of one another, agreements could not be reached. External forces were needed to push the balance so that the settlers would submit to the natives’ demands. In Rhodesia, the US did this; the victory of Black Nationalism was caused by the US support for them. In South Africa, the willingness of the Apartheid regime to start negotiation was caused by external pressure and changing outlook by the Afrikaans. Without these external interventions, many negotiations would go into deadlock and Black Nationalism would fail because their goal of majority rule could not be attained.
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After discussing the effect of internal and external issues on the development of Black Africans Nationalism, it was clear that internal issues were more important in the success of Black African Nationalism. Although external issues helped Black Africans to gain independence and created majority ruled nations, the creation of Black Nationalism itself had to be done internally and its success relied on Black Africans. The development of Black Nationalism – their ideology, their leaders, and their political consciousness – all the things that was necessary to create a nation happened inside Africa, with external influence. Nonetheless, internal issues also responsible for its failures, the divisiveness of tribal factions and disagreement of leadership could cause civil war and prevent Black African to forge a united nation. External issues were more responsible for the failures of Black Nationalism. Dissensions between tribes were started by the colonial rule to divide and rule them. Sectarianism during the Cold War also damaged Black Nationalism. The US only served its selfish interests – though occasionally this helped Black Africans. In addition to that, foreign companies maintained influence and control through neo-colonialism, this prevented Black Africans to gain self-determination and determine their own fate, they were still colonised by the Capitalists.
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